Haram to Halal:
The Brewing of Coffee Consensus in Islamic Law
By Heather Sweetser and Zack Manning
February 11, 2025
Coffee holds a significant place in Islamic legal history, the Middle East, and the wider world. The intellectual journey of coffee from being deemed haram to becoming widely accepted in Islamicate societies is more complex and contested than commonly portrayed in scholarly accounts. This topic can be approached through legal, historical, and linguistic lenses, revealing that coffee's acceptance within the broader Islamic community evolved far later than commonly acknowledged.
A Whitewashed History
The history of coffee has often been Eurocentric, focusing on its arrival in Vienna, London, and the rise of "Penny Universities." This narrative largely ignores its earlier origins and the significant cultural and legal debates surrounding it in the Islamic world. Coffee’s story begins long before Europe embraced it, with its roots in Ethiopia, its cultivation in Yemen, and its spread throughout the Ottoman Empire. While other beverages such as beer and wine have clear timelines in Western history — and much longer histories — coffee’s early journey is deeply intertwined with Sufi mysticism. Sufi practitioners, seeking a drink to aid in prolonged spiritual practices, were among the first to popularize coffee, using it to stay awake during late-night dhikr ceremonies (remembrance of God). As coffee spread, it transcended its status as a mere beverage, becoming a cultural and religious symbol that legal authorities and segments of society throughout the Middle East viewed with suspicion.
The Legal Debate
The controversy over coffee in Islamic law revolved around whether it was intoxicating and, therefore, prohibited like alcohol. Islamic jurisprudence employs several principles to derive legal rulings:
‘Ila (effective cause): The underlying reason behind a legal ruling based on revelation.
Qiyas (analogical reasoning): Deriving new rulings by comparing cases with established precedents.
Ijtihad (independent reasoning): A more flexible approach, allowing scholars to apply broader Shariah principles when clear analogies are absent.
‘Ijma (consensus): The collective agreement among scholars on a legal matter.
Initially, coffee, or qahwa as it is known in Arabic, faced skepticism due to its association with Sufi rituals as well as the fact that the word qahwa originally referred to wine. This linguistic overlap, combined with concerns about whether coffee induced a form of intoxication or altered states of consciousness, fueled debates. Scholars questioned whether its effects paralleled those of wine, a substance explicitly prohibited in the Qur'an.
Wine vs. Coffee: A Lingering Debate
The debate over what constitutes “drunkenness” persisted well into the 18th century as exemplified by Murtada az-Zabidi’s 1798 manuscript, which continued to question coffee's permissibility even though the manuscript comes down clearly in favor of coffee being halal. This discussion over coffee’s legality in general reflects broader legal and political dynamics. For some, the Sufis were considered political outsiders, and were viewed skeptically by mainstream scholars, leading to coffee being “guilty by association.” In this context, the acceptance of coffee was not merely a legal issue but also a political one, influenced by power dynamics within the Ottoman Empire starting in the 15th century and continuing far longer than scholars have come to believe.
Broader Implications
Islamic law operates within a complex relationship between religious scholars and state authorities. Depending on the context, it can be separate from or co-opted by political power. In the case of coffee, the Ottoman Empire's growing trade with Europe turned the beverage into a significant economic asset, further complicating its legal status. The political and economic importance of coffee eventually overshadowed earlier religious hesitations, allowing it to gain widespread acceptance.
Conclusion: Unfinished Scholarship
The story of coffee in Islamic law remains incomplete. Much of the scholarship is inaccessible due to language barriers and untranslated Ottoman manuscripts. Future research could reveal how early legal debates about coffee shaped broader Islamic legal principles. Questions about coffee as bida' (innovation) in Wahhabism and its temporary prohibition in the Ottoman Empire remain areas ripe for exploration. Coffee’s journey from haram to halal is a testament to the dynamic nature of Islamic jurisprudence, shaped by cultural, political, and economic forces over centuries.
Zack Manning is the Director of the Diwan Institute for Humanity. Heather Sweetser is a Lecturer of Arabic at the University of New Mexico. She serves on the Board of the Diwan Institute for Humanity. This essay was adapted from a presentation given at the 2024 Middle East Studies Association (MESA) national conference.